Artificial Intelligence Industry In China

The artificial intelligence market in individuals’s Republic of China is a quickly developing multi-billion dollar industry. The roots of China’s AI development started in the late 1970s following Deng Xiaoping’s financial reforms highlighting science and innovation as the nation’s main productive force.

The preliminary phases of China’s AI advancement were sluggish and experienced substantial obstacles due to lack of resources and talent. At the beginning China lagged many Western nations in regards to AI advancement. A majority of the research study was led by researchers who had received greater education abroad. [1]

Since 2006, the federal government of individuals’s Republic of China has actually gradually developed a nationwide program for artificial intelligence advancement and emerged as among the leading nations in synthetic intelligence research and development. [2] In 2016, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) released its thirteenth five-year plan in which it intended to end up being a worldwide AI leader by 2030. [3]

The State Council has a list of “nationwide AI teams” including fifteen China-based business, including Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, and iFlytek. [citation required] Each company must lead the development of a designated specialized AI sector in China, such as facial acknowledgment, software/hardware, and speech acknowledgment. China’s quick AI advancement has significantly affected Chinese society in lots of areas, including the socio-economic, military, and political spheres. Agriculture, transport, lodging and food services, and production are the leading markets that would be the most affected by additional AI deployment.

The economic sector, university laboratories, and the armed force are working collaboratively in many elements as there are few current existing limits. [4] In 2021, China published the Data Security Law of individuals’s Republic of China, its very first nationwide law addressing AI-related ethical concerns. In October 2022, the United States federal government announced a series of export controls and trade constraints intended to limit China’s access to innovative computer system chips for AI applications. [5] [6]

Concerns have actually been raised about the results of the Chinese government’s censorship regime on the development of generative synthetic intelligence and talent acquisition with state of the nation’s demographics. [7] [8]

History

The research study and development of artificial intelligence in China began in the 1980s, with the announcement by Deng Xiaoping of the value of science and innovation for China’s financial development. [3]

Late 1970s to early 2010s

Artificial intelligence research and advancement did not begin until the late 1970s after Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms. [3] While there was an absence of AI-related research in between the 1950s and 1960s, some scholars believe this is due to the influence of cybernetics from the Soviet Union in spite of the Sino-Soviet split during the late 1950s and early 1960s. [9] In the 1980s, a group of Chinese researchers introduced AI research study led by Qian Xuesen and Wu Wenjun. [9] However, throughout the time, China’s society still had a normally conservative view towards AI. [9] Early AI advancement in China was difficult so China’s federal government approached these challenges by sending out Chinese scholars overseas to study AI and more offering government funds for research study tasks. The Chinese Association for Expert System (CAAI) was founded in September 1981 and was authorized by the Ministry of Civil Affairs. [10] The very first chairman of the executive committee was Qin Yuanxun, who received a PhD in viewpoint from Harvard University. [citation needed] In 1987, China’s first research study publication on synthetic intelligence was published by Tsinghua University. Beginning in 1993, wise automation and intelligence have belonged to China’s nationwide innovation strategy. [9]

Since the 2000s, the Chinese government has further broadened its research and advancement funds for AI and the variety of government-sponsored research jobs has actually considerably increased. [3] In 2006, China announced a policy concern for the development of synthetic intelligence, which was consisted of in the National Medium and Long Term Plan for the Development of Science and Technology (2006-2020), released by the State Council. [2] In the exact same year, expert system was also mentioned in the eleventh five-year strategy. [11]

In 2011, the Association for the Advancement of Expert System (AAAI) developed a branch in Beijing, China. [12] At very same year, the Wu Wenjun Artificial Intelligence Science and Technology Award was established in honor of Chinese mathematician Wu Wenjun, and it ended up being the highest award for Chinese accomplishments in the field of synthetic intelligence. The very first award event was hung on May 14, 2012. [13] In 2013, the International Joint Conferences on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI) was kept in Beijing, marking the very first time the conference was kept in China. This event coincided with the Chinese government’s announcement of the “Chinese Intelligence Year,” a considerable milestone in China’s advancement of synthetic intelligence. [12]

Late 2010s to early 2020s

The State Council of China released “A Next Generation Artificial Intelligence Development Plan” (State Council Document [2017] No. 35) on 20 July 2017. In the file, the CCP Central Committee and the State Council prompted governing bodies in China to promote the advancement of artificial intelligence. Specifically, the strategy explained AI as a tactical innovation that has ended up being a “focus of global competitors”. [14]:2 The file prompted substantial financial investment in a number of strategic locations associated with AI and called for close cooperation in between the state and personal sectors. On the occasion of CCP general secretary Xi Jinping’s speech at the first plenary conference of the Central Military-Civil Fusion Development Committee (CMCFDC), scholars from the National Defense University composed in the PLA Daily that the “transferability of social resources” between economic and military ends is a necessary part to being a fantastic power. [15] During the Two Sessions 2017,”artificial intelligence plus” was proposed to be raised to a tactical level. [16] The same year experienced the emergence of multiple application-level uses in the medical field according to reports. [17] Furthermore, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) developed their AI processor chip research study laboratory in Nanjing, and presented their first AI specialization chip, Cambrian. [citation required]

In 2018, Xinhua News Agency, in collaboration with Tencent’s subsidiary Sogou, introduced its very first synthetic intelligence-generated news anchor. [18] [19] [20]

In 2018, the State Council allocated $2.1 billion for an AI industrial park in Mentougou district. [21] In order to attain this the State Council mentioned the need for massive skill acquisition, theoretical and useful developments, along with public and private financial investments. [14] A few of the mentioned motivations that the State Council provided for pursuing its AI technique include the capacity of expert system for commercial improvement, better social governance and maintaining social stability. [14] As of completion of 2020, Shanghai’s Pudong District had 600 AI business across fundamental, technical, and application layers, with associated markets valued at around 91 billion yuan. [22]

In 2019, the application of expert system broadened to various fields such as quantum physics, geography, and medical research. With the introduction of large language designs (LLMs), at the start of 2020, Chinese scientists started developing their own LLMs. One such example is the multimodal large model called ‘Zidongtaichu.’ [23]

The Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence launched China’s very first large scale pre-trained language model in 2022. [24] [25]:283

In November 2022, the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC), Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, and the Ministry of Public Security collectively issued the policies concerning deepfakes, which became reliable in January 2023. [26]

In July 2023, Huawei released its version 3.0 of its Pangu LLM. [27]

In July 2023, China launched its Interim Measures for the Administration of Generative Artificial Intelligence Services. [28]:96 A draft proposal on basic generative AI services safety requirements, consisting of specs for data collection and model training was issued in October 2023. [28]:96

Also in October 2023, the Chinese government introduced its Global AI Governance Initiative, which frames its AI policy as part of a Neighborhood of Common Destiny and intends to develop AI policy discussion with developing nations. [29] [28]:93 The Initiative has actually revealed concern over AI safety risks, including abuse of data or the usage of AI by terrorists. [28]:93

In 2024, Spamouflage, an online disinformation and propaganda project of the Ministry of Public Security, began utilizing news anchors developed with generative expert system to provide phony news clips. [18]

In March 2024, Premier Li Qiang introduced the AI+ Initiative, which intends to integrate AI into China’s genuine economy. [28]:95

In May 2024, the Cyberspace Administration of China announced that it rolled out a big language model trained on Xi Jinping Thought. [30]

According to the 2024 report from the International Data Corporation (IDC), Baidu AI Cloud holds China’s largest LLM market share with 19.9 percent and US$ 49 million in earnings over the in 2015. This was followed by SenseTime, with 16 percent market share, and by Zhipu AI, as the 3rd largest. The fourth and 5th biggest were Baichuan and the Hong-Kong listed AI business 4Paradigm respectively. [31] Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax were applauded by investors as China’s brand-new “AI Tigers”. [32] In April 2024, 117 generative AI models had been approved by the Chinese federal government. [33]

As of 2024, lots of Chinese innovation firms such as Zhipu AI and Bytedance have actually launched AI video-generation tools to rival OpenAI’s Sora. [34]

Chronology of significant AI-related policies

Ministry of Science and Technology; Ministry of Industry and Information Technology; the Central Leading Group for Cyberspace Affairs

National Development and Reform Commission; Ministry of Science and Technology Ministry of Industry and Infotech

Government goals

According to a February 2019 publication by the Center for a Brand-new American Security, CCP basic secretary Xi Jinping – believes that being at the forefront of AI technology will be critical to the future of worldwide military and financial power competition. [35] By 2025, the State Council goes for China to make essential contributions to fundamental AI theory and to strengthen its location as a worldwide leader in AI research. Further, the State Council goes for AI to end up being “the primary driving force for China’s industrial updating and financial improvement” by this time. [14] By 2030, the State Council intends to have China be the global leader in the advancement of artificial intelligence theory and technology. The State Council claims that China will have developed a “fully grown new-generation AI theory and technology system.” [14]

According to academics Karen M. Sutter and Zachary Arnold, the Chinese federal government “looks for to combine state preparation and control while some functional flexibility for firms. In this context, China’s AI companies are hybrid players. The state guides their activity, funds, and shields them from foreign competitors through domestic market protections, producing asymmetric benefits as they broaden offshore.” [36]

The CCP’s fourteenth five-year strategy declared AI as a top research study priority and ranks AI first among “frontier industries” that the Chinese government aims to focus on through 2035. [3] The AI industry is a strategic sector typically supported by China’s government guidance funds. [37]:167

Research and development

Chinese public AI financing mainly concentrated on advanced and applied research. [38] The government funding likewise supported numerous AI R&D in the economic sector through equity capital that are backed by the state. [38] Much analytic company research showed that, while China is enormously investing in all elements of AI advancement, facial recognition, biotechnology, quantum computing, medical intelligence, and self-governing vehicles are AI sectors with the most attention and funding. [39]

According to nationwide assistance on developing China’s state-of-the-art industrial development zones by the Ministry of Science and Technology, there are fourteen cities and one county picked as an experimental advancement zone. [40] Zhejiang and Guangdong provinces have the most AI development in experimental areas. However, the focus of AI R&D differed depending upon cities and regional commercial advancement and ecosystem. For example, Suzhou, a city with a longstanding strong production industry, greatly concentrates on automation and AI facilities while Wuhan focuses more on AI executions and the education sector. [40] In connection with universities, tech companies, and nationwide ministries, Shenzhen and Hangzhou each co-founded generative AI laboratories. [25]:282

In 2016 and 2017, Chinese teams won the top prize at the Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge, a worldwide competitors for computer vision systems. [41] A number of these systems are now being incorporated into China’s domestic monitoring network. [42]

Interdisciplinary collaborations play a necessary role in China’s AI R&D, including academic-corporate collaboration, public-private collaborations, and international cooperations and jobs with corporate-government partnerships are the most typical. [1] China ranked in the top 3 around the world following the United States and the European Union for the total number of peer-reviewed AI publications that are produced under a corporate-academic collaboration in between 2015 and 2019. [43] Besides, according to an AI index report, China exceeded the U.S. in 2020 in the overall variety of worldwide AI-related journal citations. [43] In regards to AI-related R&D, China-based peer-reviewed AI documents are generally sponsored by the government. In May 2021, China’s Beijing Academy of Expert system released the world’s largest pre-trained language design (WuDao). [44]

Since 2023, 47% of the world’s top AI researchers had actually completed their undergraduate studies in China. [28]:101

According to academic Angela Huyue Zhang, publishing in 2024, while the Chinese federal government has actually been proactive in regulating AI services and imposing responsibilities on AI business, the overall approach to its regulation is loose and shows a pro-growth policy beneficial to China’s AI industry. [28]:96 In July 2024, the federal government opened its very first algorithm registration center in Beijing. [45]

Population

China’s big population generates a massive quantity of available data for companies and researchers, which offers a vital benefit in the race of big information. Since 2024 [upgrade], China has the world’s biggest number of internet users, generating big amounts of information for artificial intelligence and AI applications. [46]:18

Facial recognition

Facial recognition is one of the most widely utilized AI applications in China. Collecting these big quantities of information from its homeowners assists additional train and broaden AI abilities. China’s market is not just conducive and important for corporations to more AI R&D but likewise uses remarkable economic potential bring in both global and domestic companies to sign up with the AI market. The drastic advancement of the info and interaction technology (ICT) industry and AI chipsets in the last few years are two examples of this. [47] China has become the world’s biggest exporter of facial acknowledgment innovation, according to a January 2023 Wired report. [48]

Censorship and material controls

In April 2023, [49] the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) provided draft procedures stating that tech companies will be obliged to guarantee AI-generated content promotes the ideology of the CCP including Core Socialist Values, avoids discrimination, appreciates intellectual home rights, and safeguards user information. [50] [25]:278 Under these draft measures, companies bear legal responsibility for training information and content created through their platforms. [25]:278 In October 2023, the Chinese government mandated that generative synthetic intelligence-produced content may not “incite subversion of state power or the overthrowing of the socialist system.” [51] Before releasing a large language model to the general public, business need to look for approval from the CAC to certify that the design refuses to respond to certain questions connecting to political ideology and criticism of the CCP. [8] [52] Questions associated with politically sensitive subjects such as the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre or contrasts between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh need to be decreased. [52]

In 2023, in-country gain access to was obstructed to Hugging Face, a business that maintains libraries consisting of sets frequently utilized for big language designs. [8] A subsidiary of the People’s Daily, the official newspaper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, offers local business with training information that CCP leaders think about allowable. [8] In 2024, the People’s Daily launched a LLM-based tool called Easy Write. [53]

Microsoft has alerted that the Chinese federal government uses generative expert system to interfere in foreign elections by spreading out disinformation and provoking discussions on divisive political concerns. [54] [55] [56]

The Chinese artificial intelligence design DeepSeek has been reported to decline to answer questions connecting to features of the 1989 Tiananmen Square demonstrations and massacre, persecution of Uyghurs, comparisons in between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh or human rights in China. [57] [58] [59]

Impact

Economic effect

Most agencies [who?] hold positive views about AI’s financial impact on China’s long-lasting economic development. In the past, standard markets in China have had problem with the boost in labor costs due to the growing aging population in China and the low birth rate. With the implementation of AI, functional expenses are expected to minimize while an increase in performance produces earnings development. [60] Some highlight the importance of a clear policy and governmental support in order to overcome adoption barriers consisting of expenses and lack of properly trained technical skills and AI awareness. [61] However, there are issues about China’s deepening income inequality and the ever-expanding imbalanced labor market in China. Low- and medium-income employees might be the most adversely impacted by China’s AI development because of increasing needs for workers with innovative abilities. [61] Furthermore, China’s economic growth may be disproportionately divided as a bulk of AI-related industrial advancement is focused in seaside regions instead of inland. [61]

An influential decision by the Beijing Internet Court has actually ruled that AI-generated material is entitled to copyright protection. [28]:98

Military effect

China seeks to develop a “first-rate” armed force by “intelligentization” with a specific focus on the use of unmanned weapons and expert system. [62] [63] It is investigating numerous kinds of air, land, sea, and undersea self-governing lorries. In the spring of 2017, a civilian Chinese university with ties to the military showed an AI-enabled swarm of 1,000 unoccupied aerial vehicles at an airshow. A media report launched afterwards showed a computer simulation of a comparable swarm formation finding and damaging a rocket launcher. [4]:23 Open-source publications showed that China is likewise developing a suite of AI tools for cyber operations. [64] [4]:27 Chinese development of military AI is mostly influenced by China’s observation of U.S. strategies for defense innovation and worries of a widening “generational gap” in contrast to the U.S. armed force. Similar to U.S. military concepts, China intends to utilize AI for exploiting large troves of intelligence, producing a typical operating picture, and speeding up battleground decision-making. [64] [4]:12 -14 The Chinese Multi-Domain Precision Warfare (MDPW) is considered China’s reaction to the U.S. Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2) method, which looks for to incorporate sensing units and weapons with AI and a vigorous network. [65] [66]

Twelve classifications of military applications of AI have actually been recognized: UAVs, USVs, UUVs, UGVs, intelligent munitions, smart satellites, ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance) software application, automated cyber defense software, automated cyberattack software application, choice assistance, software application, automated rocket launch software, and cognitive electronic warfare software application. [67]

China’s management of its AI ecosystem contrasts with that of the United States. [4]:6 In general, couple of borders exist in between Chinese industrial companies, university lab, the military, and the central government. As an outcome, the Chinese federal government has a direct ways of guiding AI development priorities and accessing innovation that was seemingly established for civilian purposes. To even more reinforce these ties the Chinese government created a Military-Civil Fusion Development Commission which is planned to speed the transfer of AI technology from business companies and research study organizations to the military in January 2017. [2] [4]:19 In addition, the Chinese federal government is leveraging both lower barriers to information collection and lower costs of data identifying to create the large databases on which AI systems train. [68] According to one quote, China is on track to possess 20% of the world’s share of information by 2020, with the possible to have over 30% by 2030. [64] [4]:12

China’s centrally directed effort is buying the U.S. AI market, in business dealing with militarily pertinent AI applications, possibly granting it legal access to U.S. technology and copyright. [69] Chinese endeavor capital investment in U.S. AI companies in between 2010 and 2017 amounted to an approximated $1.3 billion. [70] [64] In September 2022, the U.S. Biden administration released an executive order to avoid foreign financial investments, “especially those from competitor or adversarial nations,” from investing in U.S. technology companies, due to U.S. nationwide security issues. [71] [72] The order covers fields of U.S. technologies in which Chinese government has actually been investing, consisting of “microelectronics, expert system, biotechnology and biomanufacturing, quantum computing, [and] advanced tidy energy.” [71] [72]

In 2024, researchers from the People’s Liberation Army Academy of Military Sciences were reported to have actually developed a military tool utilizing Llama, which Meta Platforms said was unapproved due to its model usage prohibition for military purposes. [73] [74]

Academia

Although in 2004, Peking University presented the very first academic course on AI which led other Chinese universities to embrace AI as a discipline, particularly because China deals with obstacles in recruiting and keeping AI engineers and researchers. [21] Over half of the information scientists in the United States have been working in the field for over 10 years, while approximately the very same percentage of information researchers in China have less than 5 years of experience. Since 2017, fewer than 30 Chinese Universities produce AI-focused specialists and research items. [61]:8 Although China went beyond the United States in the variety of research study documents produced from 2011 to 2015, the quality of its released papers, as judged by peer citations, ranked 34th internationally. [75] China particularly desire to deal with military applications and so the Beijing Institute of Technology, among China’s premier institutes for weapons research study, just recently developed the first kids’s instructional program in military AI worldwide. [76]

In 2019, 34% of Chinese trainees studying in the AI field remained in China for work. [77] According to a database preserved by an American thinktank, the percentage increased to 58% in 2022. [77]

Ethical issues

For the previous years, there are discussions about AI safety and ethical issues in both private and public sectors. In 2021, China’s Ministry of Science and Technology released the very first national ethical guideline, ‘the New Generation of Artificial Intelligence Ethics Code’ on the topic of AI with specific emphasis on user security, information personal privacy, and security. [78] This document acknowledges the power of AI and quick innovation adjustment by the huge corporations for user engagements. The South China Morning Post reported that human beings shall stay in full decision-making power and rights to opt-in/-out. [78] Before this, the Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence released the Beijing AI principles requiring vital requirements in long-lasting research study and planning of AI ethical principles. [79]

Data security has actually been the most typical topic in AI ethical discussion worldwide, and lots of nationwide federal governments have actually established legislation attending to information personal privacy and security. The Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China was enacted in 2017 intending to attend to brand-new challenges raised by AI advancement. [80] [initial research study?] In 2021, China’s brand-new Data Security Law (DSL) was passed by the PRC congress, establishing a regulative structure categorizing all kinds of information collection and storage in China. [81] This implies all tech companies in China are needed to categorize their information into classifications noted in Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and follow particular guidelines on how to govern and deal with information transfers to other celebrations. [81]

Judicial system

In 2019, the city of Hangzhou developed a pilot program synthetic intelligence-based Internet Court to adjudicate disagreements associated with ecommerce and internet-related intellectual property claims. [82]:124 Parties appear before the court by means of videoconference and AI assesses the proof presented and applies appropriate legal requirements. [82]:124

Because some controversial cases that drew public criticism for their low punishments have actually been withdrawn from China Judgments Online, there are issues about whether AI based on fragmented judicial data can reach impartial decisions. [83] Zhang Linghan, teacher of law at the China University of Government and Law, composes that AI-technology business may wear down judicial power. [84] Some scholars argued that “increasing celebration leadership, political oversight, and lowering the discretionary area of judges are intentional objectives of SCR [smart court reform]” [85]

Leading business

Leading AI-centric business and start-ups include Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, 4Paradigm and Yitu Technology. [86] Chinese AI companies iFlytek, SenseTime, Cloudwalk and DJI have actually received attention for facial acknowledgment, sound recognition and drone technologies. [87]

China’s government takes a market-oriented approach to AI, and has sought to encourage personal tech companies in developing AI. [25]:281 In 2018, it designated Baidu, Alibaba, iFlytek, Tencent, and SenseTime as “AI champions”. [25]:281

In 2023, Tencent debuted its big language design Hunyuan for enterprise usage on Tencent Cloud. [88]

New leading AI start-ups include Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax which were applauded by financiers as China’s new “AI Tigers” in 2024. [32] 01. AI has actually likewise been promoted as a leading start-up. [89]

Assessment

Academic Jinghan Zeng argued the Chinese government’s commitment to worldwide AI leadership and technological competitors was driven by its previous underperformance in development which was seen by the CCP as a part of the century of humiliation. [90] According to Zeng, there are traditionally embedded causes of China’s anxiety towards protecting a worldwide technological supremacy – China missed out on both industrial transformations, the one beginning in Britain in the mid-18th century, and the one that came from America in the late-19th century. [90] Therefore, China’s government desires to benefit from the technological revolution in today’s world led by digital innovation including AI to resume China’s “rightful” location and to pursue the nationwide restoration proposed by Xi Jinping. [90]

A post released by the Center for a Brand-new American Security concluded that “Chinese federal government officials demonstrated remarkably eager understanding of the issues surrounding AI and global security. This consists of knowledge of the U.S. AI policy conversations,” and suggested that “the U.S. policymaking neighborhood to likewise focus on cultivating expertise and understanding of AI developments in China” and “funding, focus, and a desire amongst U.S. policymakers to drive large-scale essential change.” [35] An article in the MIT Technology Review similarly concluded: “China might have unrivaled resources and enormous untapped potential, however the West has world-leading know-how and a strong research culture. Rather than stress over China’s development, it would be smart for Western countries to focus on their existing strengths, investing greatly in research study and education. ” [91]

The Chinese federal government’s censorship routine has actually stunted the advancement of generative expert system [7] [8]

In a 2021 text, the Research Centre for a Holistic Approach to National Security at the China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations composed that the development of AI develops obstacles for holistic national security, consisting of the threats that AI will heighten social stress or have destabilizing results on worldwide relations. [28]:49

Writing from a Chinese Marxist view, academics consisting of Gao Qiqi and Pan Enrong contend that capitalist application of AI will lead to greater injustice of employees and more severe social issues. [28]:90 Gao mentions how the development of AI has increased the power of platform companies like Meta, Twitter, and Alphabet, causing greater capital build-up and political power in less economic actors. [28]:90 According to Gao, the state needs to be the primary accountable star in the location of generative AI (producing new content like music or video). [28]:92 Gao writes that military use of AI risks escalating military competition between nations and that the effect of AI in military matters will not be limited to one country however will have spillover effects. [28]:91

Dialogues in between Chinese and Western AI specialists about the existential threat from artificial intelligence have actually taken location. [92]

Public polling

The Chinese public is normally positive regarding AI. [25]:283 [28]:101 A 2021 study performed throughout 28 countries discovered that 78% of the Chinese public thinks the benefits of AI surpass the risks, the greatest of any nation in the study. [25]:283 In 2024, a survey of elite Chinese university trainees discovered that 80% concurred or highly concurred that AI will do more great than harm for society, and 31% thought it should be managed by the federal government. [93]

Human rights

The widely utilized AI facial recognition has raised issues. [94] According to The New York Times, implementation of AI facial recognition innovation in the Xinjiang region to spot Uyghurs is “the very first known example of a government deliberately using expert system for racial profiling,” [95] which is said to be “among the most striking examples of digital authoritarianism.” [96] Researchers have actually found that in China, locations experiencing greater rates of discontent are related to increased state acquisition of AI facial recognition technology, especially by regional community cops departments. [97] [98]

Artificial intelligence.
Artificial intelligence arms race
China Brain Project
Fifth generation computer
List of expert system business
Regulation of expert system

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Further reading

Hannas, William C.; Chang, Huey-Meei, eds. (29 July 2022). Chinese Power and Expert System: Perspectives and Challenges (1st ed.). London: Routledge.